Factsheets: Multicultural Victims

• Overview
• Cultural Traits
• Bibliography
• For Additional Information

Overview

With the increasing diversity of the U.S. population there is growing awareness of the need for culturally-specific responses to victims' needs. Victim service providers need to be aware first of their own possible cultural biases and the fact that others have widely varying responses to trauma. Providers must then be willing to learn about various cultures, to attend trainings aimed at developing multicultural sensitivity, and to mold their treatment practices accordingly.

Dr. Brian Ogawa states that "the effectiveness of counseling for minority victims of crime can only derive from the cultural appropriateness of the treatment being offered. There must be a correspondence between how the victim identifies the most important aspects of a crime's impact and how these are addressed...." (Ogawa, 1990, p.253).

Because adequate treatment is often precluded by lack of training and other resources, victim service practitioners need to develop a network of contacts in the field, information about organizations, and access to published sources of information (Ohio Coalition, 1991; "Cross- Cultural Service Delivery," 1992).

Aspects of cultural diversity that should be considered include ethnicity, language, nationality, sexual orientation, migration experience, disabilities, age, gender, economic considerations and educational status. Victim service providers should identify and validate the cultural background of a victim, paying attention in particular to the following issues:

• Role of family, including whether family members should be involved in counseling;
• Community values, i.e., whether there is pressure against reporting crimes by community members or a stigma attached to being a victim;
• Gender roles, especially the role of women in traditional societies, and the pressures these expectations can exert over women's reporting of, or responses to, crime;
• Attitudes toward death, especially respecting different communities' rituals;
• Migration experiences, especially if the victims are refugees who have experienced previous oppression;
• Religion and how religious beliefs and support systems affect attitudes toward crime, trauma and mental health concerns;
• Education and employment: groups with less education and income are more likely to suffer crime and have less access to legal remedies and counseling;
• Language: whether the victim can communicate effectively with service practitioners, and if interpreters should be used; and
• Degree of assimilation into the dominant culture (Ohio Coalition, 1991; "Cross-Cultural Service Delivery," 1992; Ogawa, 1990).

Cultural Traits

It is common for minority ethnic groups currently residing in the United States to share traits such as lower economic and educational status, as well as language barriers. They suffer from racism and poor police response to crimes. Victim service providers must become acquainted with characteristics of specific groups, although keeping in mind differences among sub-groups and individuals. This section discusses basic generalizations about certain major groups for which the majority of the literature has been written.

The crime rate among African Americans is higher than any other ethnic group, and blacks suffer more violent crimes and receive greater injury than do non-blacks. Black women are more often raped. Blacks tend to have strong family and community ties and religious identification, although many distrust the dominant culture. Problems tend to be addressed within the family unit until they become very serious (Ohio Coalition, 1991; "Cross-Cultural Service Delivery," 1992; Whitaker, 1990; Hamilton, 1989; Ogawa, 1990).

As the fastest-growing ethnic group in the U.S., Hispanics experience more violent crime and robberies than non-Hispanics, mostly because they tend to be younger, poorer, and more urban. Many do not speak English and have suffered oppression as immigrants as well as employment discrimination. Most have strong Catholic beliefs, solid family and community ties, and traditional attitudes about gender roles. Cultural traits include extended family support, concrete life outlook and respect for authority that uses silence and avoidance of eye contact (Ohio Coalition, 1991; "Cross-Cultural Service Delivery," 1992; Bastian, 1990; Hamilton, 1989; Ogawa, 1990; Bastian, 1990).

Asian-Americans are predominately foreign-born. Many refugees suffered violent oppression and may distrust authority. In the United States, where they are increasingly visible due to recent high immigration, Asians commonly suffer bigotry and hate crimes. Asian women may be more likely to put family ahead of individual interests and less willing to discuss sexual incidents (Ohio Coalition, 1991; "Cross-Cultural Service Delivery," 1992; United States Commission on Civil Rights, 1992; Hamilton, 1989). "Most Asians are taught to be task-oriented. Therapy sessions for Asians should therefore delineate goals, assign practical exercises, and should occur over a brief rather than extended period" (Ogawa, 1990, p.274).

The Native American often receives his or her strength from a harmony with the environment. They may rely upon shamans for spiritual or concrete guidance (i.e., agricultural advice) as well as medicinal cures. Mystical powers associated with the shamans, and hence relevant to those who are served by the shamans, are dependent upon specific geographic locations. This is one illustration of the connection between the Indian and land not thoroughly understood by Western thought (Ogawa, 1990).

In addition to expanding victim services to include culturally sensitive services for minority groups, two additional groups of victims should not be overlooked: the elderly and children.

The elderly suffer proportionately less crime, but usually suffer more serious consequences due to physical vulnerability, economic dependence, and isolation. The elderly are significantly more likely to report their victimizations. As the elderly are the fastest growing segment of the U.S. population, victim service providers may have an increasing number of elderly clientele, and thus require education about this population group (Bureau of Justice Statistics, 1981; Whitaker, 1987; Bachman, 1992).

Children are particularly vulnerable to sexual crimes. They suffer on-going abuse, including prostitution and pornography, as well as one-time assault, and commonly face obstacles to receiving help. Only a small percentage of crimes against children is reported. The following are some of the reactions to victimization:

• Affective problems: guilt, depression and anger;
• Physical effects: injury, pregnancy, sexually transmitted diseases, non-specific complaints, i.e., headaches and stomachaches;
• Cognitive effects: concentration problems;
• Behavioral symptoms: acting out using anti-social and hostile actions;
• Self destructive behaviors: self-mutilation and suicidal actions;
• Psychopathology: neurosis and psychosis; and
• Sexualized behaviors: excessive masturbation and early sexual sophistication (Whitcomb, 1992, p.18-19; Ohio Coalition, 1991).

Again, these are generalizations which are intended to maximize the understanding of diversity and to undermine negative stereotyping attitudes. Ogawa provides the context for the service provider to benefit from generalizations or traits: "The minority client is best served when the counselor empathizes with what is culturally and individually relevant to the client's situation" (Ogawa, 1990, p.202). "Trauma affects the whole person and not just one aspect of life. Different cultures therefore have unique 'idioms of distress' to publicly communicate subjective discomfort" (Ogawa, 1990, p.255).

Ogawa suggests, for victim service facilities lacking the staff to mirror the ethnicity of its clientele, using "minority volunteers, a systematic referral system, protocols to guide non-minority staff, periodic training, the availability of culturally sensitive written materials, and on-call translators" (Ogawa, 1990, p. 260). He suggests providing a step-by-step guide to start a culturally appropriate program including:

• Acknowledgment that there are different and valid cultural definitions concerning personal well-being and recovery from traumatic events;
• Support of the sophisticated and varied approaches to 'mental health' which exist in minority cultures, and taking these into account in minority victim services and referrals;
• Extensive cultural awareness training and competency testing to enable staff to have the capacity to understand persons whose thinking, behavior, and expressive models are culturally different;
• Multi-ethnic teamwork as a resource and tool to implement and monitor effective services; and
• A cross-cultural perspective to incorporate and benefit from the principles and methods of other cultures (Ogawa, 1990, p.262).

Bibliography

Bachman, Ronet. (1992). Elderly Victims. Washington, D.C.: Bureau of Justice Statistics, U.S. Department of Justice.

"Bureau of Justice Statistics Report: Crime and the Elderly." December, 1981.

Bastian, Lisa D. (1990). Hispanic Victims. Washington, D.C.: Bureau of Justice Statistics, U.S. Department of Justice.

Young, Marlene A. (1992). "Cross-Cultural Service Delivery". The Road to Victim Justice: Mapping Strategies for Service, A Series of Regional Training Conferences. National Organization for Victim Assistance and National Center for Victims of Crime.

Hamilton, Jean A. (1987). "Emotional Consequences of Victimization and Discrimination in 'Special Populations' of Women." Women's Disorders, 12(1): 35-51.

Ogawa, Brian. (1990). Color of Justice: Culturally Sensitive Treatment of Minority Crime Victims. Sacramento: Office of the Governor, State of California.

Ohio Coalition on Sexual Assault. (1991). "Guidelines for Providing Culturally Appropriate Crisis Intervention." Columbus.

United States Commission on Civil Rights. (1992). "Civil Rights Issues Facing Asian Americans in the 1990s."

Whitaker, Catherine J. (1990). Black Victims. Washington, D.C.: Bureau of Justice Statistics, U.S. Department of Justice.

Whitaker, Catherine J. (1987). Elderly Victims. Washington, D.C.: Bureau of Justice Statistics, U.S. Department of Justice.

Whitcomb, Debra. (1992). When the Victim is a Child, second edition. Washington, D.C.: National Institute of Justice, U.S. Department of Justice.

For additional information, please contact:

National Institute Against Prejudice and Violence
132 Stephens Hall Annex
Towson, MD 21204
(410) 830-5170

Human Rights Resource Center
615 B Street
San Rafael, CA 94901
(415) 453-0404

Southern Poverty Law Center
P.O. Box 548
Montgomery, AL 36101
(205) 264-0286

Three Feathers Associates
1808 Newton Drive
P.O. Box 5508
Norman, OK 73070
(405) 360-2919

National Indian Justice Center
The McNear Building
Fourth Street
Suite 46
Petaluma, CA 94952
(707) 762-8113

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Copyright © 1992 by the National Center for Victims of Crime.   This information may be freely distributed, provided that it is distributed free of charge, in its entirety and includes this copyright notice.